A Comprehensive Study of Cold Ironing under FuelEU and EU ETS Regulations: Environmental and Economic Impacts Across Vessel Types

The maritime sector faces increasing regulatory and societal pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, particularly under the European Union’s Emission Trading System (EU ETS) and the FuelEU Maritime regulation. This study examines cold ironing as a compliance and sustainability strategy, focusing on its environmental and economic implications across vessel types. Using 2023 Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification data from the THETIS database, five adoption scenarios (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) are analyzed to assess GHG mitigation potential and regulatory cost impacts. Results show that full adoption of cold ironing can reduce average GHG emissions by 6.33%, enabling passenger and cruise ships to meet near-term FuelEU targets, while generating substantial cost savings under the EU ETS, particularly for high-emission vessels such as oil tankers and container ships. However, adoption is strongly influenced by business and management factors, including port infrastructure investment, renewable energy availability, and ownership structures. While cold ironing alone cannot achieve long-term decarbonization goals, it represents an effective transitional measure to enhance environmental performance, reduce compliance risks, and improve competitive positioning. More broadly, the study highlights how regulatory frameworks and technological strategies interact to shape sustainable transport operations, offering policy and managerial insights relevant beyond the maritime sector.